We have already seen that in Akkadian the infixes around the root consonants of a verb signal its tense, while its prefixes and suffixes denote its subject. However, there are other systematic configurations of the verbal root—adding infixes, doubling root consonants—that change the verb's basic meaning. We call these configurations stems. There is a lot to learn about them, so this topic is split over two separate pages.
When you have read this page, you might like to test your understanding by trying Cuneiform exercise 5.
There are four main stems and two ways to alter them to produce so-called derived stems, so that there are about a dozen stems in all. (In fact, one of them is never used, as we shall see, and there are also a few rare ones, found mostly in literary texts, which we shall not discuss here.)
The four main stems are given standard technical names (and numbers, as used in some dictionaries):
Before we look at the N, D, and Š stems in more detail, we should first consider the two ways of producing derived stems, especially the way in which they work on G-stem verbs.
Three of the four main stems have a derived stem made by adding the infix -t(a)- immediately before the second root consonant of the verb. The Dt and Št stems are passive to the D and Š, just as the N is passive to the G. We will say more about them in the context of their main stems. The N stem does not form an Nt stem, so there is no more to say about that. Let's start, then, with the Gt.
Gt-stem verbs add three different nuances to G-stem verbs (depending on the verb and the context):
Here are paradigms for the main tenses of the Gt stem, one for each vowel class. Because the subjects are marked with the same prefixes and suffixes as in the G stem, we will just use the most common form, "he/she" and "they" (masculine and mixed). But, as always when learning new parts of a language, it's a good idea to practice writing out the Gt-stem using other verbs and in other persons.
| G-stem infinitive | Gt stem infinitive | Preterite | Present | Perfect |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| parāsum, "to cut, to decide" (a/u) | pitrusum, "to cut oneself/each other" | iptaras iptarsū |
iptarras iptarrasū |
iptatras iptatrasū |
| lamādum, "to learn" (a/a) | litmudum, "to get to know one another" | iltamad iltamdū |
iltammad iltammadū |
iltatmad iltatmadū |
| nakāpum, "to push, to butt" (i/i) | nitkupum, "to butt each other" (animals) | ittakip (*intakip) ittakpū |
ittakkip (*intakkip) ittakkipū |
ittatkip (*intatkip) ittatkipū |
| lasāmum, "to run" (u/u) | litsumum, "to run away" | iltasum | iltassum | iltatsum |
Note how the root vowel is squeezed out of some forms with suffixes, following a pattern explained on the Sound rules page.
In all tenses, the vowel class of Gt-stem verbs is the same as their present-tense vowel in the G. Notice how the Gt preterite is identical in form to the G perfect. We can only tell them apart by the context. In the verbal forms from nitkupum, the root consonant n assimilates with the adjacent infix t to make tt, as explained on the Sound rules page.
Not every verb has a Gt stem, because the ideas of reciprocality, reflexivity, and motion away are not universally useful. For instance, it would not make sense for napāšum, "to breathe", to have a Gt stem, nor for šarāqum, "to steal".
However, there are two handy words that can convey reciprocal or reflexive action without using the Gt stem: ahāmiš, "one another", and ramānum, "self". They are particularly convenient when indirect objects are involved. So we can write, for instance, ina ahāmiš išriqū, "they stole from each other", or ana ramāniya adabbub, "I am talking to myself". (There is much more to say about these two words, but that is beyond our topic here.)
You may also be wondering how Akkadian represents motion towards, if the Gt is for motion away. In fact it uses the dative suffix -am, "to me" (e.g, ilsumam, "he ran here (to me)"). Used in this more general sense, we call this the ventive (coming) suffix and often translate it with "here".
All stems of the verb can add a -tan- infix immediately after the first root consonant, to denote repeated, habitual, or continual action (e.g., G-stem ilassum, "he is running", but Gtn-stem iltanassum, "he is always running", both present tense). We call these derived stems the Gtn, Dtn, Štn, and Ntn. Most verbs have Gtn stems, because most actions, events, or states can be repeated.
Whenever the n of the -tan- infix is adjacent to another consonant, it assimilates to that consonant, as explained on the Sound rules page. So in the Gtn stem the three tenses look like this. :
| G-stem infinitive | Gtn-stem infinitive | Preterite | Present | Perfect |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| parāsum, "to cut, to decide" (a/u) | pitarrusum, "to keep cutting, to keep deciding" | iptarras | iptanarras | iptatarras |
| lamādum, "to learn" (a/a) | litammudum, "to keep learning" | iltammad | iltanammad | iltatammad |
| nakāpum, "to push, to butt" (i/i) | nitakkupum, "to keep pushing" | ittakkip (*intankip) | ittanakkip (*intanakkip) | ittatakkip (*intattankip) |
| lasāmum, "to run" (u/u) | litassumum, "to keep running" | iltassum | iltanassum | iltatassum |
As in the Gt, in all tenses the vowel class of Gtn-stem verbs is the same as their present-tense vowel in the G. Notice how the Gtn preterite is identical in form to the Gt present. We can only tell them apart by the context in which they occur.
As we have already mentioned, the N stem is usually the passive of the G stem (e.g., G-stem inaddin, "he will give", but N-stem innaddin, "it will be given"). Verbs such as šalāmum "to be healthy", which describe states of being, cannot really have a passive version. Rarely, they use the N stem to denote coming into that state (so iššalim, if it existed, might mean "he became healthy"). Many verbs, however, do not have an N stem at all.
N-stem verbs are formed by adding an -n- between the prefix vowel and the first root consonant of the verb. As always, the n assimilates with that consonant, as explained on the Sound rules page. The class vowels of the N stem are a little tricky to remember: a in the present/durative and perfect tenses for a/u, a/a, and u/u class verbs, but i elsewhere:
| G-stem infinitive | N-stem infinitive | Preterite | Present | Perfect |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| parāsum, "to cut, to decide" (a/u) | naprusum, "to be cut, to be decided" | ipparis (*inparis) | ipparras (*inparras) | ittapras (*intaparas) |
| lamādum, "to learn" (a/a) | nalmudum, "to be learned" | illamid (*inlamid) | illammad (*inlammad) | ittalmad (*intalamad) |
| nakāpum, "to push, to butt" (i/i) | nankupum, "to be pushed" | innakip | innakkip | ittakip (*intanakip) |
| zamārum, "to sing" (u/u) | nazmurum, "to be sung" | izzamir (*inzamir) | izzammar (*inzammar) | ittazmar (*intazamar) |
Finally, for the sake of completeness, we should briefly acknowledge the rare Ntn stem—the habitual or repetitive passive or ingressive relative of the G stem. Predictably, verbs in this stem are formed with both the -n- after the prefix and the -tan- before the first root consonant. The Ntn perfect is not attested. Do not spend much time learning this stem though: for beginners it is enough to know that it exists, and roughly what it looks like.
| G-stem infinitive | Ntn-stem infinitive | Preterite | Present |
|---|---|---|---|
| parāsum, "to cut, to decide" (a/u) |
itaprusum (*nitanprusum), "to keep being cut or decided" |
ittapras (*intanpras) | ittanapras (*intanapras) |
| nakāpum, "to push, to butt" (i/i) |
itankupum, "to keep being pushed" |
ittakkip (*intannkip) | ittanakkip (*intanankip) |
Verbs in classes a/a and u/u take the same vowels as a/u verbs in the Ntn stem.
Content last modified on 02 Apr 2024.
Eleanor Robson
Eleanor Robson, 'The Gt, Gtn, and N stems: modifying the basic meanings of verbs (I)', Knowledge and Power, Higher Education Academy, 2024 [http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/saao/knpp/CuneiformRevealed/Akkadianlanguage/TheGt,Gtn,andNstems/]