- Centred on the Tigris in northern Iraq; ruled or controlled most of the Middle East
- Heavily centralised, using military conquest, trade, and agriculture to support an elaborate court infrastructure in the capital, Nineveh
- Ruled by absolute monarch, both pious and mighty: e.g., Esarhaddon (r.680-669); Assurbanipal (r.668-c.630)
- Court retinue included: royal family; palace officials; military officials; provincial governors; scholarly advisors
Observation and divination
- 'Scribes of Enuma Anu Enlil TT ' observed horizon TT from sunset till sunrise (e.g. SAA 10: 78)
- Moon and five visible planets TT move around the ecliptic (the apparent path of the sun), rising on eastern horizon; setting on western horizon
- Reference set of to up to 36 'Normal Stars', in the Paths of Anu, Enlil, and Ea TT
- Divination TT from the sun, moon, 5 visible planets, comets, lunar corona, other occasional events, weather
- Communication with king via letters (SAA 10: 1-172) and reports (SAA 8), interpreting ominous observations through the omen TT series TT Enuma Anu Enlil and learned commentaries (e.g. SAA 8: 100)
Averting evil: the Substitute King Ritual
- Lunar eclipse TT possibility every 5 or 6 months at full moon: sun and moon in opposition; Earth casts shadow on moon
- Solar eclipse possibility 14 days before or after a lunar eclipse when no night moon: sun and moon in conjunction; moon blocks view of daytime sun
- Scholars could not be certain of an eclipse in advance (e.g. SAA 10: 46)
- Solar eclipse bodes ill for the king: avert evil by throning a substitute TT (e.g. SAA 10: 189) and turning the real king into a 'farmer' TT through purification TT rituals TT (e.g. SAA 10: 212)
- Substitute put to death once the evil has passed; king returns to throne. Esarhaddon undergoes SKR three times during his reign (e.g. SAA 10: 221)
- Lesser evils averted by lamentation rituals performed by kalû 'lamentation priests' TT (e.g. SAA 10: 340)
The Substitute King Ritual, while removing the king from potential danger, also removed him from public life. This could, paradoxically, undermine his authority by preventing him from ruling effectively but also bought him breathing space in times of crisis. Negotiations between king and scholars ensured that the king retained some control.
Further reading
- Bottéro, Mesopotamia, 1992: Chapter 9, 'The substitute king and his fate', pp. 138-155
- Van De Mieroop, History of the ancient Near East, 2005: Chapter 13, 'Assyria's world domination', pp. 232-252
- Leichty, 'Esarhaddon', 1995
- Aaboe, 'What every young person', 2002
- Koch-Westenholz, Mesopotamian astrology, 1996: Chapter 5, 'The working principles' (pp. 97-136), pp. 97-136
- Brown, 'Scientific revolution', 2003
- Rochberg, Heavenly writing, 2004: Chapter 2, 'Celestial divination in context' pp. 44-97
- Maul, 'How Babylonians protected themselves', 1999
Content last modified: 07 Jul 2012.